Publications

On this page, you’ll find all my scientific articles, arranged in chronological order with the most recent ones on top. If you are interested in a particular topic, you can use the following keywords:

Character
Grit
Intervention
Measurement
Self-control

All Publications

Duckworth, A. L. (in press). How to write for other people. Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2021.2016903.
Leonard, J., Lydon-Staley, D. M., Sharp, S. D. S., Liu, H. Z., Park, A., Bassett, D. S., Duckworth, A. L., & Mackey, A. (in press). Daily fluctuations in young children’s persistence. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13717.
Yeager, D. S., Carroll, J. M., Buontempo, J., Cimpian, A., Woody, S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Murray, J., Mhatre, P., Kersting, N., Hulleman, C., Kudym, M., Murphy, M., Duckworth, A. L., Walton, G. M., & Dweck, C. S. (in press). Teacher mindsets help explain where a growth mindset intervention does and doesn’t work. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211028984.
Duckworth, A. L., Kautz, T., Defnet, A., Satlof-Bedrick, E., Talamas, S., Lira, B., & Steinberg, L. (2021). Students attending school remotely suffer socially, emotionally, and academically. Educational Researcher. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211031551.
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Tsukayama. E. (2021). Revisiting the factor structure of grit: A commentary on Duckworth and Quinn (2009). Journal of Personality Assessment. 103(5), 573-575. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1942022.
Gross, J. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2021). Beyond willpower. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 44, e37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X20000722.
Leonard, J. A., Duckworth, A. L., Schulz, L. E., & Mackey, A. P. (2021). Leveraging cognitive science to foster children’s persistence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(8), 642-644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.05.005.
Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D., Ho, H., Kay, J. S., Lee, T. W., Pandiloski, P., Park, Y., Rai, A., Bazerman, M., Beshears, J., Bonacorsi, L., Camerer, C., Chang, E., Chapman, G., Cialdini, R., Dai, H., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Fishbach, A., Gross, J. J., . . . Duckworth, A. L. (2021). Megastudies improve the impact of applied behavioural science. Nature, 600, 478–483. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04128-4.
Milkman, K. L., Patel, M. S., Gandhi, L., Graci, H. N., Gromet, D. M., Ho, H., Kay, J. S., Lee, T. W., Akinola, M., Beshears, J., Bogard, J. E., Buttenheim, A., Chabris, C. F., Chapman, G. B., Choi, J. J., Dai, H., Fox, C. R., Goren, A., Hilchey, M. D., . . . Duckworth, A. L. (2021). A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(20), e2101165118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101165118.
Milyavskaya, M., Galla, B. M., Inzlicht, M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2021). More effort, less fatigue: The role of interest in increasing effort and reducing mental fatigue. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.755858.
Santos, I., Petroska-Beska, V., Carneiro, P., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Boudet, A. M. M., Berniell, I., Krekel, C., Arias, O., and Duckworth, A. (2021). Can grit be taught? Lessons from a nationwide field experiment with middle-school students. Policy Research Working Paper, no. WPS 983, Impact Evaluation Series. World Bank Group. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-9831.
Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002.
Galla, B. M., Tsukayama, E., Yu, A., Park, D., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). The mindful adolescent: Developmental changes in nonreactivity to inner experiences and its association with emotional well-being. Developmental Psychology, 56(2), 350-363. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000877.
Gardner, M., Hutt, S. J., Kamentz, D., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2020). How does high school extracurricular participation predict bachelor’s degree attainment? It is complicated. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(3), 753-768. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12557.
Gruber, J., Mendle, J., Lindquist, K. A., Schmader, T., Clark, L. A., Bliss-Moreau, E., Akinola, M., Atlas, L., Barch, D. M., Feldman Barrett, L., Borelli, J. L., Brannon, T. N., Bunge, S. A., Campos, B., Cantlon, J., Carter, R., Carter-Sowell, A. R., Chen, S., Craske, M. G., . . . Williams, L. A. (2020). The future of women in psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(3), 483-516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620952789.
Kirgios, E. L., Mandel, G. H., Park, Y., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., Kay, J. S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). Teaching temptation bundling to boost exercise: A field experiment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 20-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.003.
Mehr, K. S., Geiser, A. E., Milkman, K. L., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). Copy-paste prompts: A new nudge to promote goal achievement. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 5(3), 329-334. https://doi.org/10.1086/708880.
Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Yu, A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). The development of grit and growth mindset in adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 198, 104889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104889.
Porter, T., Molina, D. C., Blackwell, L., Roberts, S., Quirk, A., Duckworth, A. L., & Trzesniewski, K. (2020). Measuring mastery behaviors at scale: The Persistence, Effort, Resilience and Challenge-Seeking task (PERC). Journal of Learning Analytics, 7(1), 5-18. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2020.71.2.
Rege, M., Hanselman, P., Solli, I. F., Dweck, C. S., Ludvigsen, S., Bettinger, E., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Walton, G., Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). How can we inspire nations of learners? Investigating growth mindset and challenge-seeking in two countries. American Psychologist, 76(5), 755-767. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000647.
Spann, C. A., Yu, A., Galla, B. M., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2020). Is academic diligence domain-specific or domain-general? An investigation of the math, verbal, and spatial Academic Diligence Tasks with middle schoolers. Learning and Individual Differences. 80, 101870 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101870.
Zamarro, G., Nichols, M., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2020). Validation of survey effort measures of grit and self-control in a sample of high school students. PLOS One, 15(7), e0235396. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235396.
Chang, E. H., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., Rebele, R. W., Massey, C., Duckworth, A. L., & Grant, A. M. (2019). The mixed effects of online diversity training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(16), 7778-7783. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1816076116.
Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Self-reports spur self-reflection. MIT Sloan Management Review.
Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Using psychological science to help children thrive. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(1), 34-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804194.
Duckworth, A. L., Milkman, K. L., & Laibson, D. (2019). Beyond willpower: Strategies for reducing failures of self-control. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(3), 102-129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618821893.
Duckworth, A. L., Quirk, A., Gallop, R., Hoyle, R. H., Kelly, D. R., & Matthews, M. D. (2019). Cognitive and noncognitive predictors of success. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(47), 23499-23504. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910510116.
Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-control and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 373-399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103230.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019). A large-scale field experiment shows giving advice improves academic outcomes for the advisor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(30), 14808-14810. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1908779116.
Galla, B. M., Shulman, E. P., Plummer, B. D., Gardner, M., Hutt, S. J., Goyer, J. P., Lejuez, C. W., Mello, S. K., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Why high school grades are better predictors of on-time college graduation than are admissions test scores: The roles of self-regulation and cognitive ability. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2077-2115. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219843292.
Grenell, A., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2019). Individual differences in the effectiveness of self-distancing for young children’s emotion regulation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12259.
Grenell, A., White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2019). Experimental paradigm for measuring the effects of self-distancing in young children. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 145, e59056. https://doi.org/10.3791/59056.
Hutt, S. J., Gardner, M., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2019). Evaluating fairness and generalizability in models predicting on-time graduation from college applications. In C. F. Lynch, A. Merceron, M. Desmarais, & R. Nkambou (Eds.), Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM 2019) (pp. 79-88).
Peña, P. A., Pérez-Díaz, I., Pulido-Ayala, A. K., Osorio-Landa, H. K., López-Navarro, J. M., Duckworth, A. L., & Jena, A. B. (2019). Association of grit scores with treatment adherence and biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA Network Open, 2(9), e1911476. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.11476.
Southwick, D. A., Tsay, C. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Grit at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 39, 100126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2020.100126.
Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., Paunesku, D., Romero, C., Flint, K., Roberts, A., Trott, J., Iachan, R., Buontempo, J., Man Yang, S., Carvalho, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 573, 364-369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y.
Duckworth, A. L., & Meindl, P. (2018). Clarifying character education. Journal of Character Education, 14(2), 37-39.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Fishbach, A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Dear Abby: Should I give advice or receive it?. Psychological Science, (29)11, 1797-1806. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618795472.
Hutt, S., Gardner, M., Kamentz, D., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2018). Prospectively predicting 4-year college graduation from student applications. In S. Buckingham Shum, R. Ferguson, A. Merceron & X Ochoa (Eds.). Proceedings of the 8th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference (LAK’18).
Lee, T.H., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Organizational grit. Harvard Business Review, 96(5), 98-105.
Meindl, P., Yu, A., Galla, B. M., Quirk, A., Haeck, C., Goyer, J. P., Lejuez, C. W., Mello, S. K., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). A brief behavioral measure of frustration tolerance predicts academic achievement immediately and two years later. Emotion, 19(6), 1081-1092. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000492.
Park, D., Yu, A., Baelen, R. N., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Fostering grit: Perceived school goal-structure predicts growth in grit and grades. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 55, 120-128. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.007.
Park, D., Yu, A., Metz, S. E., Tsukayama, E., Crum, A. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Beliefs about stress attenuate the relation among adverse life events, perceived distress, and self-control. Child Development, 89(6), 2059-2069. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12946.
Peña, P., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). The effects of relative and absolute age in the measurement of grit from 9th to 12th grade. Economics of Education Review, 66, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.009.
Robinson, C. D., Pons, G., Duckworth, A. L., & Rogers, T. (2018). Some middle school students want behavior commitment devices (but take-up does not affect their behavior). Frontiers in Psychology, 9(206). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00206.
White, R. E., Kuehn, M. M., Duckworth, A. L., Kross, E., & Ayduk, Ö. (2018). Focusing on the future from afar: Self-distancing from future stressors facilitates adaptive coping. Emotion, 19(5), 903–916. https:/doi.org/10.1037/emo0000491.
Wiese, C. W., Tay, L., Duckworth, A. L., D’Mello, S., Kuykendall, L., Hofmann, W., Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2018). Too much of a good thing? Exploring the inverted-U relationship between self-control and happiness. Journal of Personality, (86)3, 380-396. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12322.
D’Mello, S. K., Dieterle, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). Advanced, Analytic, Automated (AAA) measurement of engagement during learning. Educational Psychologist, 52(2), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1281747.
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. (2017). The science and practice of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 715–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617690880.
Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Goodwin, G. P., Patrick, S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). A tripartite taxonomy of character: Evidence for intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intellectual competencies in children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.08.001.
Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615623247.
Duckworth, A. L., White, R. E., Matteucci, A. J., Shearer, A., & Gross, J. J. (2016). A stitch in time: Strategic self-control in high school and college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 329-341. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000062.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Gross, J. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: Sustained self-regulation in the service of superordinate goals. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications (3rd ed.). Guilford.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Young, V., Tsukayama, E., Brunwasser, S. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Using wise interventions to motivate deliberate practice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 728-744. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000074.
Galla, B. M., Baelen, R. N., Duckworth, A. L., & Baime, M. J. (2016). Mindfulness, meet self-regulation: Boosting out-of-class meditation practice with brief action plans. Motivation Science 2(4), 220–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000045.
White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2016). The “Batman Effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development, 88(5), 1563-1571. https:/doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12695.
Yeager, D. S., Walton, G. M., Brady, S. T., Akcinar, E. N., Paunesku, D., Keane, L., Kamentz, D., Ritter, G., Duckworth, A. L., Urstein, R., Gomez, E. M., Markus, H. R., Cohen, G. L., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). Teaching a lay theory before college narrows achievement gaps at scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(24), E3341–E3348. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1524360113.
Duckworth, A. L., & Eskreis-Winkler, L. (2015). Grit. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 397-401). Elsevier.
Duckworth, A. L., & Steinberg, L. (2015). Unpacking self-control. Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 32-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12107.
Duckworth, A. L., & Tsukayama, E. (2015). Domain-specificity in self-control. In C. Miller, R. M. Furr, A. Knobel, & W. Fleeson (Eds.), Character: New directions from philosophy, psychology, and theology (pp. 393-411). Oxford University Press.
Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 44(4), 237-251. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15584327.
Duckworth, A. L., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178.
Duckworth, A. L., Shulman, E. P., Mastronarde, A. J., Patrick, S. D., Zhang, J., & Druckman, J. (2015). Will not want: Self-control rather than motivation explains the female advantage in report card grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 39, 13-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.006.
Galla, B. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 508-525. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000026.
Kaufman, S. B., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). World-class expertise: A developmental model. WIREs: Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1365.
West, M. R., Kraft, M. A., Finn, A. S., Martin, R., Duckworth, A. L., Gabrieli, C. F. O., & Gabrieli. J. D. E. (2015). Promise and paradox: Measuring students’ non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(1), 148-170.
White, R. E., Kross, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). Spontaneous self-distancing and adaptive self-reflection across adolescence. Child Development, 86(4), 1272–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12370.
Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 319-325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462.
Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control in school-age children. Educational Psychologist, 49(3), 199-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926225.
Eisenberg, N., Duckworth, A. L., Spinrad, T. L., & Valiente, C. (2014). Conscientiousness: Origins in childhood?. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1331-1349. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030977.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Survivor mission: Do those who survive have a drive to thrive at work?. Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.888579.
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Beal, S. A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036.
Friedman, H. S., Kern, M. L., Hampson, S. E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). A new lifespan approach to conscientiousness and health: Combining the pieces of the causal puzzle. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1377-1389. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030373.
Galla, B. M., Plummer, B. D., White, R., Meketon, D., D'Mello, S. K., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The Academic Diligence Task (ADT): Assessing individual differences in effort on tedious but important schoolwork. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39(4), 314-325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.08.001.
Plummer, B. D., Galla, B. M., Finn, A., Patrick, S. D., Meketon, D., Leonard, J., Goetz, C., Fernandez-Vina, E., Bartolino, S., White,… R. E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). A behind-the-scenes guide to school-based research. Mind, Brain, and Education, 8(1), 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12040.
Robertson-Kraft, C., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). True grit: Trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals predicts effectiveness and retention among novice teachers. Teachers College Record, 116(3), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811411600306.
Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(4), 306-312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320.
Yeager, D. S., Henderson, M. D., Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., D’Mello, S., Spitzer, B. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Boring but important: A self-transcendent purpose for learning fosters academic self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(4), 559-580. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037637.
Duckworth, A. L. (2013). Is it really self-control: A critical analysis of the “Marshmallow Test.”. Society of Personality and Social Psychology Connections. Retrieved from https://spsptalks.wordpress.com/2013/11/10/is-it-really-self-control-a-critical-analysis-of-the-marshmallow-test/.
Duckworth, A. L. & Eskreis-Winkler, L. (2013). True grit. The Observer, 26(4), 1-3.
Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2013). Self-regulation and school success. In B. W. Sokol, F. M. E. Grouzet, & U. Müller (Eds.), Self-regulation and autonomy: Social and developmental dimensions of human conduct (pp. 208-230). Cambridge University Press.
Duckworth, A. L., Kim, B., & Tsukayama, E. (2013). Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(608), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00608.
Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Gollwitzer, A., & Oettingen, G. (2013). From fantasy to action: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves academic performance in children. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(6), 745-753. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550613476307.
Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Kirby, T. A. (2013). Is it really self-control? Examining the predictive power of the delay of gratification task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 843-855. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213482589.
Kern, M. L., Duckworth, A. L., Urzua, S. S., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Lynam, D. R. (2013). Do as you’re told! Facets of agreeableness and early adult outcomes for inner-city boys. Journal of Research in Personality, 47(6), 795-799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.08.008.
Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A. L., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(6), 661-679. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196.
Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. (2013). Domain-specific impulsivity in school-age children. Developmental Science, 16(6), 879-893. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12067.
Duckworth, A. L., & Allred, K. M. (2012). Temperament in the classroom. In R. L. Shiner & M. Zentner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 627-644). Guilford Press.
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P., & Tsukayama, E. (2012). What No Child Left Behind leaves behind: The roles of IQ and self-control in predicting standardized achievement test scores and report card grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 439-451. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026280.
Duckworth, A. L., Weir, D., Tsukayama, E., & Kwok, D. (2012). Who does well in life? Conscientious adults excel in both objective and subjective success. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(356), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00356.
Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. (2012). Resisting everything except temptation: Evidence and an explanation for domain-specific impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 318-334. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.841.
Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J., & Kautz, T. (2011). Personality psychology and economics. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 4., pp. 1-181). Elsevier.
Duckworth, A. L. (2011). The significance of self-control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2639-2640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019725108.
Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(3), 259-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004.
Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions . Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.506003.
Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Tsukayama, E., Berstein, H., & Ericsson, K. A. (2011). Deliberate practice spells success: Why grittier competitors triumph at the National Spelling Bee. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(2), 174-181. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610385872.
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1018601108.
Gollwitzer, A., Oettingen, G., Kirby, T. A., Duckworth, A. L., & Mayer, D. (2011). Mental contrasting facilitates academic performance in school children. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 403-412, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9222-0.
Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., Ayduk, Ö., Tsukayama, E., & Mischel, W. (2011). The effect of self-distancing on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection in children. Emotion, 11(5), 1032-1039. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021787.
Roberts, B., Jackson, J., Duckworth, A. L., & Von Culin, K. (2011). Personality measurement and assessment in large panel surveys. Forum for Health Economics & Policy, 14(2), 1-32, 0000102202155895441268. https://doi.org/10.2202/1558-9544.1268.
Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Geier, A. B. (2010). Self-controlled children stay leaner in the transition to adolescence. Appetite, 54(2), 304-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2009.11.016.
Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & May, H. (2010). Establishing causality using longitudinal hierarchical linear modeling: An illustration predicting achievement from self-control. Social Psychology and Personality Science, 1(4), 311-317. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550609359707.
Romer, D., Duckworth, A. L., Sznitman, S., & Park, S. (2010). Can adolescents learn self-control? Delay of gratification in the development of control over risk taking. Prevention Science, 11(3), 319-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-010-0171-8.
Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L. (2010). Domain-specific temporal discounting and temptation. Judgment and Decision Making, 5(2), 72-82.
Tsukayama, E., Toomey, S. L., Faith, M. S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2010). Self-control as a protective factor against overweight status in the transition to adolescence. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164(7), 631-635. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.97.
Duckworth, A. L. (2009). (Over and) beyond high-stakes testing. American Psychologist, 64(4), 279-280.
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166-174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290.
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2009). Positive predictors of teacher effectiveness. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 540-547. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903157232.
MacCann, C., Duckworth, A. L., & Roberts, R. (2009). Empirical identification of the major facets of conscientiousness. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(4), 451-458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.03.007.
Borghans, L., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J. J., & ter Weel, B. (2008). The economics and psychology of personality traits. Journal of Human Resources, 43(4), 972-1059. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.4.972.
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087-1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). Self-discipline gives girls the edge: Gender differences in self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 198-208. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.198.
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16(12), 939-944. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x.
Duckworth, A. L., Steen, T. A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 629-651. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154.

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All Publications

Duckworth, A. L. (in press). How to write for other people. Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2021.2016903.

Leonard, J., Lydon-Staley, D. M., Sharp, S. D. S., Liu, H. Z., Park, A., Bassett, D. S., Duckworth, A. L., & Mackey, A. (in press). Daily fluctuations in young children’s persistence. Child Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13717.

Duckworth, A. L., Kautz, T., Defnet, A., Satlof-Bedrick, E., Talamas, S., Lira, B., & Steinberg, L. (2021). Students attending school remotely suffer socially, emotionally, and academically. Educational Researcher. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211031551.

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Tsukayama. E. (2021). Revisiting the factor structure of grit: A commentary on Duckworth and Quinn (2009). Journal of Personality Assessment. 103(5), 573-575. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1942022.

Gross, J. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2021). Beyond willpower. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 44, e37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X20000722.

Leonard, J. A., Duckworth, A. L., Schulz, L. E., & Mackey, A. P. (2021). Leveraging cognitive science to foster children’s persistence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(8), 642-644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.05.005.

Milyavskaya, M., Galla, B. M., Inzlicht, M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2021). More effort, less fatigue: The role of interest in increasing effort and reducing mental fatigue. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.755858.

Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2020). Behavior change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.002.

Galla, B. M., Tsukayama, E., Yu, A., Park, D., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). The mindful adolescent: Developmental changes in nonreactivity to inner experiences and its association with emotional well-being. Developmental Psychology, 56(2), 350-363. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000877.

Gardner, M., Hutt, S. J., Kamentz, D., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2020). How does high school extracurricular participation predict bachelor’s degree attainment? It is complicated. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(3), 753-768. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12557.

Kirgios, E. L., Mandel, G. H., Park, Y., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., Kay, J. S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). Teaching temptation bundling to boost exercise: A field experiment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 20-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.09.003.

Mehr, K. S., Geiser, A. E., Milkman, K. L., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). Copy-paste prompts: A new nudge to promote goal achievement. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 5(3), 329-334. https://doi.org/10.1086/708880.

Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Yu, A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). The development of grit and growth mindset in adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 198, 104889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104889.

Zamarro, G., Nichols, M., Duckworth, A. L., & D’Mello, S. K. (2020). Validation of survey effort measures of grit and self-control in a sample of high school students. PLOS One, 15(7), e0235396. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235396.

Chang, E. H., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., Rebele, R. W., Massey, C., Duckworth, A. L., & Grant, A. M. (2019). The mixed effects of online diversity training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(16), 7778-7783. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1816076116.

Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Self-reports spur self-reflection. MIT Sloan Management Review.

Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Using psychological science to help children thrive. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(1), 34-36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804194.

Duckworth, A. L., Milkman, K. L., & Laibson, D. (2019). Beyond willpower: Strategies for reducing failures of self-control. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(3), 102-129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618821893.

Duckworth, A. L., Quirk, A., Gallop, R., Hoyle, R. H., Kelly, D. R., & Matthews, M. D. (2019). Cognitive and noncognitive predictors of success. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(47), 23499-23504. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910510116.

Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-control and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 373-399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103230.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019). A large-scale field experiment shows giving advice improves academic outcomes for the advisor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(30), 14808-14810. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1908779116.

Grenell, A., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2019). Individual differences in the effectiveness of self-distancing for young children’s emotion regulation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12259.

Grenell, A., White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2019). Experimental paradigm for measuring the effects of self-distancing in young children. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 145, e59056. https://doi.org/10.3791/59056.

Southwick, D. A., Tsay, C. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019). Grit at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 39, 100126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2020.100126.

Duckworth, A. L., & Meindl, P. (2018). Clarifying character education. Journal of Character Education, 14(2), 37-39.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Fishbach, A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Dear Abby: Should I give advice or receive it?. Psychological Science, (29)11, 1797-1806. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618795472.

Lee, T.H., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Organizational grit. Harvard Business Review, 96(5), 98-105.

Park, D., Yu, A., Baelen, R. N., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Fostering grit: Perceived school goal-structure predicts growth in grit and grades. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 55, 120-128. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.007.

Park, D., Yu, A., Metz, S. E., Tsukayama, E., Crum, A. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Beliefs about stress attenuate the relation among adverse life events, perceived distress, and self-control. Child Development, 89(6), 2059-2069. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12946.

Peña, P., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). The effects of relative and absolute age in the measurement of grit from 9th to 12th grade. Economics of Education Review, 66, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.009.

Robinson, C. D., Pons, G., Duckworth, A. L., & Rogers, T. (2018). Some middle school students want behavior commitment devices (but take-up does not affect their behavior). Frontiers in Psychology, 9(206). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00206.

White, R. E., Kuehn, M. M., Duckworth, A. L., Kross, E., & Ayduk, Ö. (2018). Focusing on the future from afar: Self-distancing from future stressors facilitates adaptive coping. Emotion, 19(5), 903–916. https:/doi.org/10.1037/emo0000491.

D’Mello, S. K., Dieterle, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). Advanced, Analytic, Automated (AAA) measurement of engagement during learning. Educational Psychologist, 52(2), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1281747.

Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. (2017). The science and practice of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 715–718. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617690880.

Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Goodwin, G. P., Patrick, S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). A tripartite taxonomy of character: Evidence for intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intellectual competencies in children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.08.001.

Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615623247.

Duckworth, A. L., White, R. E., Matteucci, A. J., Shearer, A., & Gross, J. J. (2016). A stitch in time: Strategic self-control in high school and college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 329-341. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000062.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Gross, J. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: Sustained self-regulation in the service of superordinate goals. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications (3rd ed.). Guilford.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Young, V., Tsukayama, E., Brunwasser, S. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Using wise interventions to motivate deliberate practice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), 728-744. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000074.

Galla, B. M., Baelen, R. N., Duckworth, A. L., & Baime, M. J. (2016). Mindfulness, meet self-regulation: Boosting out-of-class meditation practice with brief action plans. Motivation Science 2(4), 220–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000045.

White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2016). The “Batman Effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development, 88(5), 1563-1571. https:/doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12695.

Duckworth, A. L., & Eskreis-Winkler, L. (2015). Grit. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 397-401). Elsevier.

Duckworth, A. L., & Steinberg, L. (2015). Unpacking self-control. Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 32-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12107.

Duckworth, A. L., & Tsukayama, E. (2015). Domain-specificity in self-control. In C. Miller, R. M. Furr, A. Knobel, & W. Fleeson (Eds.), Character: New directions from philosophy, psychology, and theology (pp. 393-411). Oxford University Press.

Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement matters: Assessing personal qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational Researcher, 44(4), 237-251. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15584327.

Duckworth, A. L., Eichstaedt, J., & Ungar, L. (2015). The mechanics of human achievement. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(7), 359-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12178.

Galla, B. M., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 508-525. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000026.

Kaufman, S. B., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). World-class expertise: A developmental model. WIREs: Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1365.

West, M. R., Kraft, M. A., Finn, A. S., Martin, R., Duckworth, A. L., Gabrieli, C. F. O., & Gabrieli. J. D. E. (2015). Promise and paradox: Measuring students’ non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(1), 148-170.

White, R. E., Kross, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). Spontaneous self-distancing and adaptive self-reflection across adolescence. Child Development, 86(4), 1272–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12370.

Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 319-325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462.

Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control in school-age children. Educational Psychologist, 49(3), 199-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926225.

Eisenberg, N., Duckworth, A. L., Spinrad, T. L., & Valiente, C. (2014). Conscientiousness: Origins in childhood?. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1331-1349. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030977.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Survivor mission: Do those who survive have a drive to thrive at work?. Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.888579.

Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., Beal, S. A., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(36), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036.

Friedman, H. S., Kern, M. L., Hampson, S. E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). A new lifespan approach to conscientiousness and health: Combining the pieces of the causal puzzle. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1377-1389. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030373.

Plummer, B. D., Galla, B. M., Finn, A., Patrick, S. D., Meketon, D., Leonard, J., Goetz, C., Fernandez-Vina, E., Bartolino, S., White,… R. E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). A behind-the-scenes guide to school-based research. Mind, Brain, and Education, 8(1), 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12040.

Robertson-Kraft, C., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). True grit: Trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals predicts effectiveness and retention among novice teachers. Teachers College Record, 116(3), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811411600306.

Von Culin, K., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Unpacking grit: Motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(4), 306-312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320.

Duckworth, A. L. (2013). Is it really self-control: A critical analysis of the “Marshmallow Test.”. Society of Personality and Social Psychology Connections. Retrieved from https://spsptalks.wordpress.com/2013/11/10/is-it-really-self-control-a-critical-analysis-of-the-marshmallow-test/.

Duckworth, A. L. & Eskreis-Winkler, L. (2013). True grit. The Observer, 26(4), 1-3.

Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2013). Self-regulation and school success. In B. W. Sokol, F. M. E. Grouzet, & U. Müller (Eds.), Self-regulation and autonomy: Social and developmental dimensions of human conduct (pp. 208-230). Cambridge University Press.

Duckworth, A. L., Kim, B., & Tsukayama, E. (2013). Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(608), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00608.

Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Gollwitzer, A., & Oettingen, G. (2013). From fantasy to action: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves academic performance in children. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(6), 745-753. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550613476307.

Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Kirby, T. A. (2013). Is it really self-control? Examining the predictive power of the delay of gratification task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 843-855. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213482589.

Kern, M. L., Duckworth, A. L., Urzua, S. S., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Lynam, D. R. (2013). Do as you’re told! Facets of agreeableness and early adult outcomes for inner-city boys. Journal of Research in Personality, 47(6), 795-799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.08.008.

Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A. L., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(6), 661-679. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196.

Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. (2013). Domain-specific impulsivity in school-age children. Developmental Science, 16(6), 879-893. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12067.

Duckworth, A. L., & Allred, K. M. (2012). Temperament in the classroom. In R. L. Shiner & M. Zentner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 627-644). Guilford Press.

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P., & Tsukayama, E. (2012). What No Child Left Behind leaves behind: The roles of IQ and self-control in predicting standardized achievement test scores and report card grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 439-451. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026280.

Duckworth, A. L., Weir, D., Tsukayama, E., & Kwok, D. (2012). Who does well in life? Conscientious adults excel in both objective and subjective success. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(356), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00356.

Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. (2012). Resisting everything except temptation: Evidence and an explanation for domain-specific impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 318-334. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.841.

Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J., & Kautz, T. (2011). Personality psychology and economics. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 4., pp. 1-181). Elsevier.

Duckworth, A. L. (2011). The significance of self-control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2639-2640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019725108.

Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(3), 259-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004.

Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions . Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.506003.

Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Tsukayama, E., Berstein, H., & Ericsson, K. A. (2011). Deliberate practice spells success: Why grittier competitors triumph at the National Spelling Bee. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(2), 174-181. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610385872.

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1018601108.

Gollwitzer, A., Oettingen, G., Kirby, T. A., Duckworth, A. L., & Mayer, D. (2011). Mental contrasting facilitates academic performance in school children. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 403-412, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9222-0.